Verschuren en doorewaard pdf

What is required here is not so much the scope of the project but how to arrive at the required degree of practicality and delineation. The consequences of not paying enough attention to these issues are an inordinately long preparation time and a literature survey that may take up to eighteen months, including the risk of PhD candidates prematurely abandoning their project.

Finally, a word of warning is appropriate here. The application of the detailed design methodology offered in this book makes it possible to develop a wellstructured and steering research design.

One may compare the results of our methodology with the design and the specifications made by an architect. Usually, the architects design and specifications form the start of a successful building process. Nevertheless, the reader is advised to delve further into the existing literature on data collection, data analysis and the research strategy that the researcher plans to use, before carrying out these activities.

He or she should do this because in Part II of this book, in which we discuss several research strategies and methods of data gathering and data collection, we especially focus on the part of the research methodology that is needed when designing a research project, rather than on the execution of the research. The constructive line of reasoning, the many well-elaborated instructions and heuristics on how to obtain results, the abundance of examples and a set of assignments render it suitable for self-study.

As a result, the reader is unlikely to run into problems while perusing the text. Designing a research project from the outset is difficult enough. That is why the instructions and the stepby-step plans presented in this book have been kept simple.

Another word of warning also is appropriate here. The straightforwardness of the book may lead to an underestimation of the difficulties encountered when designing a research project.

This will change, however, as soon as the reader applies what he or she has learned to the practice of his or her own research. Then it will become clear that the distinct steps of the designing process are more difficult than they first appeared.

The process of designing is even more complicated because, apart from the required knowledge and skills, the designer needs creativity and imagination. The best thing to do is to apply the methodology in this book to an actual research project. We strongly support teamwork in this respect. Teamwork encourages the use of creativity and imagination.

It also offers opportunities for critical reflection and discussions as to weaknesses, inconsistencies, and gaps during the 'work in progress7. At present, master students, bachelor students and, increasingly, PhD students are given the opportunity to follow these courses at various universities and research institutes.

In order to facilitate this type of usage, each chapter ends with a step-by-step approach enabling the researcher to carry out the relevant stage of his or her research project. Please note the following. If the researcher simply applies the step-by-step plans presented after each chapter to his or her research project, he or she risks losing the benefits of an iterative design strategy suggested in this book see Chapter 1.

In a nutshell, the iterative design strategy suggests that the designer continuously switches from the various parts that make up the designing process. That is why we suggest that the researcher acquires the skills of designing a research project in two separate phases. First, he or she should become acquainted with the different methods and heuristics of each individual stage in the designing process, by studying the contents of each of the following chapters in this book.

Once the reader has become acquainted with the several techniques and has acquired the skills needed, he or she can Introduction 13 apply the methodology to a real-life project. Only then can the research project benefit best from the iterative design strategy.

In the past, it has proven to be quite practical when one has the opportunity to reread the basics of research design during a research project. Again, there is a danger that, as a consequence of the step-by-step plans, the reader slavishly applies these steps, without critical reflection. Research is often too complex and too multiform to be designed entirely according to a set of previously fixed rules.

The step-bystep plans presented in this book are meant to serve as rough guidelines for supporting the designing process. They should be used as initial steps which help the reader to structure his or her ideas. You can never design a research project on the autopilot, without critical thinking.

Structure Chapter 1 explains the logic underlying the project design and the structure of this book as a whole, by illustrating this with an authentic case. Chapters 2 through 8 and the Appendix elucidate and elaborate on the various elements of the design. For each individual chapter the text has been structured as follows. The beginning of each chapter gives an example from an everyday situation demonstrating the point we would like to make that is based on a specific problem. Subsequently, we go into further detail about the methods, procedures, methodologies and guidelines you can use when carrying out this particular stage of the research design.

All this leads to a step-by-step approach, At the end of each chapter, the step-by-step approach is applied to the authentic case introduced at the beginning of the chapter.

When you are engaged in this activity, you continuously work in all areas of the canvas. The shapes and colours of one section inspire the shapes and colours of another. From time to time you take a step back, your eyes half-closed, to view and ponder the quality and harmony of the whole. The researcher is bombarded by a host of new impressions. The following example depicts such a situation. He presents this list to a number of employees within the company. It soon appears, however, that the problems with the logistics are not the real issue.

By now the student has been working on his final project for well over one month. He realises that he had better make haste with the people he still needs to interview concerning their views on this particular problem of the logistics.

But who should he approach for these interviews? And what exactly should he ask? And what is actually part of the company logistics and what is not? Furthermore, it is now July and many people are on holiday. What should the thesis contain? How can theoretical depth into the subject be realised? All in all, the project does not look too promising.

The student in this example lacks insight into the various steps involved in the preparation of a research project. For him it is merely a jumble of activities that lack a well thought-out and planned approach. This first chapter presents an overview of the various aspects involved in research, which will be elaborated on later in this book. Section 1.

This section shows how you should structure your designing activities. The first involves determining everything you wish to achieve through the research project.

The second set of activities concerns how to realise all this during the implementation stage of the project. This is called the technical research design. The conceptual design is the subject of Part I of this book. It determines what, why and how much we are going to study and it consists of four elements.

In the first place, the objective of the research project is formulated, i. It concerns the contribution the researcher wishes to make to solve a problem outside the research itself. The research objective, in other words, concerns the use of the knowledge the research produces, not the knowledge itself.

Secondly, this research objective must be derived from and embedded in what we will be referring to as the project context. The draft of the research structure is then developed into a research framework. Subsequently, the researcher must determine which information can contribute towards achieving the selected research objective. We are now at the stage of formulating the set of research questions.

This set consists of a number of core questions and sub-questions that need to be answered during the different phases of the research project. The answers to the research questions provide the exact knowledge required 1 Project design 17 in order to achieve the research objective.

This concerns the so-called internal aim of the research, the goal within the research project. Sometimes the theoretical framework consists of a ready-made theory that the researcher has found while studying the relevant literature. But more often than not, the researcher will have to derive a theoretical framework from different theories that need to be adjusted in order to fit the research project. Such a theoretical framework often takes the form of a so-called conceptual model.

In the Appendix of this book we present detailed instructions on how to develop such a conceptual model. The final part of the conceptual design concerns a set of activities in which the core concepts of the research objective, the research questions and the conceptual model are defined, refined and made concrete.

It is particularly important that abstractly defined core concepts are translated into observable phenomena, i. This process is called defining and operationalising the key concepts. This process helps the researcher to demarcate his or her research object. The second set of core activities in designing a research project concerns the technical research design, or simply technical design. The technical design is the subject of Part II of this book. A first step to be taken is the selection of the research strategy.

Core questions to be answered are: Is the researcher looking for breadth or depth, will he or she follow a quantitative or qualitative approach, first-hand observation or an analysis of information or data produced by others? Once the researcher has decided on a research strategy, he or she needs to choose a set of activities which establish the kind of research material needed to answer the research questions: where is this research material to be found, or how can it be produced?

Figure 1. The components listed to the right in Figure 1. Here, we will briefly explain each of these components while referring to the project 'A problem with logistics' that we discussed above. As a rule, this context is far too extensive and too complex to be dealt with comprehensively in one single research project. Therefore, the first step in developing a conceptual design is demarcation.

The research designer needs to isolate an area of the project context that is manageable for the purposes of a research project. When this part of the project context is formulated as an external goal, the solution of a practical problem, i. Example 'A problem with logistics' Project context or background A department store chain is having problems with its supply of goods. Despite recent attempts to reorganise the logistical system, no improvement has been made.

It is not quite clear where the logistical problems stem from. Some people in the organisation blame the 1 Project design 19 organisational structure. Others point at the lack of commercial orientation of the organisational culture. Some people claim that the core problem has to do with the employees' resistance to change their way of working. In our experience, this process of demarcating and defining a feasible and realistic research objective is an extremely difficult hurdle for most beginner researchers.

Nevertheless, the formulation of such a research objective is a very important condition for designing a successful research project. Research framework Before formulating the research questions, you should start by sketching in broad lines how you intend to achieve this research objective.

Drafting a neatly arranged research framework will prove helpful. The research framework is a schematic and highly visualised representation of the steps that need to be taken in order to achieve one's research objective. Such a representation will prove to be an extremely useful tool for getting a grip on the project. Chapter 3 will elaborate on the research framework. Example 'A problem with logistics' The reasoning by which you hope to realise your objective in this project is as follows.

An analysis of the organisational literature on logistics, as well as the literature on organisational structure, organisational culture, organisational change, plus preliminary research, will give you a theoretical framework.

In this and many other cases, this framework takes the form of a conceptual model, consisting of a set of factors that influence the effectiveness of the logistics. These questions have been selected and formulated in such a way that the answers will yield information that is useful or necessary for accomplishing the research objective.

Chapter 4 elaborates in greater detail on the method of how to compose this set of research questions. In the process, he or she subsequently will develop the theoretical framework for the research, mainly by studying relevant scientific literature. As soon as the reader has been able to develop a set of research questions and has come up with a theoretical framework which meets the requirements, further elaboration of the concrete research steps, that is, the technical design, should not pose a problem.

The research designer may even consider using the following as a final criterion for the quality of the set of research questions. If the researcher experiences any problem when designing the technical part of the research or has to reconsider the choices that are made regarding the technical design, then it is likely that the cause of these problems has to do with having an inadequate set of research questions. In that case, the designer should consult again the instructions we have presented in this book for formulating an adequate research objective and a steering set of research questions.

The reader will probably notice that the research objective and the research questions have to be adjusted. Which conceptual model consisting of key concepts and assumed relationships between these concepts , derived from literature and preliminary research, will be relevant when listing the opinions held by the stakeholders in the organisation on the problems with logistics and on the solutions to these problems?

What are the opinions of the different parties on the core concepts and the assumed relationships between these concepts, when applied to their own organisation? In this case as in many other cases, the theoretical framework consists of a conceptual model, that is to say, the key concepts and the assumed relationships between these concepts. Definition and operationalisation In defining the research objective and the set of research questions of a project, one or more concepts emerge which then take central stage in the research.

So we need to describe the content of the key concepts in an exact definition. This means not only presenting an exact description of these concepts, but also providing a clear demarcation of which components and dimensions are included in this definition and which components and dimensions are left out. The researcher decisions are part of the process of operationalisation.

In brief, by defining and operationalising the key concepts we can delineate the research project further and in this way more clarity can be given on where to look in the library and in the empirical field. These issues are elaborated on in Chapter 5.

Example 'A problem with logistics' A key concept in this project is 'logistic management'. Definition For the purposes of this project, we will refer to logistic management' as the set of decisions with regard to the processes, products, partners and costs which influence both the flows of goods between the suppliers and the individual department stores of the company on the one hand, and.

This ignores the flows of goods between department stores. It will be clear that the researcher implies an important delineation of the project. This is precisely what is needed at this stage of the designing process. Now that the conceptual design of the research project has been completed, we can start concentrating on the technical part of the design.

More about this is presented belowResearch strategy A subsequent decision concerns the way we plan to approach the research object. We can opt for a strategy that enables us to make valid observations. In this case it stands to reason that we should opt for an extensive research in which we strive for breadth rather than depth. The large quantity of data this necessitates usually requires quantitative data processing.

We call this type of research a quantitative survey. It is also possible that we are more interested in making a thorough examination of a complex case. Then one may opt for a strategy known as case study. Here the research is generally approached along various paths and in a qualitative way.

The price you pay for profoundness is that it is impossible to generalise the results. A first step of this plan is to define the research population.

The research population is the actual segment of reality the researcher would like to study. Once he or she has defined the research population, the researcher is able to select the resources that will give information about this population.

Research resources can be people, objects, situations, media and documents. The last step is to decide how to obtain the required information from these resources. Some of the best known gathering techniques are questionnaires, interviews, observation and content analysis of written and audio-visual documents and media contents.

More information on research material can be found in Chapter 7. Example 'A problem with logistics' As part of the 'logistics' research project, you have decided to gather the opinions of the four groups of stakeholders through a combination of a half-structured questionnaire and in-depth interviews.

You decide to approach five members of each group of stakeholders for information. Research planning One of the remaining design activities to carry out is to draw up a plan. This refers both to processing the research project and writing the research report. In order to analyse the data and report the results, it is highly valuable to have a mental image of the final report in the form of a table of contents.

More details about this follow in Chapter 8, which deals with research planning. The activities you are going to carry out within the framework of the assignment consist of conducting interviews and making observations.

You decide on a total of twenty interviews and allocate three weeks of your time to this. This decision has been based upon the golden rule that it takes 8 hours to deal with each individual interview, in total.

This includes formulating the interview questions, making appointments with the respondents, travel time, the actual interview, the interview analysis, and the selection of the information needed to answer the research questions. You allocate another fourteen days for systematising and recording the impressions you have obtained. To optimise the link between interviews and observations, you plan these days in the same six-week term as the interview sessions.

Finally you have another six weeks to relate your findings to the theoretical framework and to process all of this into a final report in the form of a thesis. This result can be viewed as the product of the research design. The next question is how to achieve this design product. This is the topic of Section 1. We may have provided the reader with the impression that designing a research project is a linear and consecutive process. Only then is the research objective to be translated into a set of research questions and, if appropriate, into a conceptual model.

Subsequently, in this linear approach the necessary material and a research strategy are selected. In this erroneous conception of the process, all decisions are subjected to a meticulous plan. For instance, in the final design the research questions should be logically derived from the research objective, because the answers to these questions should provide sufficient information in order to achieve the research objective.

Likewise, the technical design should furnish a logical translation of the problem into a number of research steps, because 1 Project design 25 carrying out the planned research project should provide the answers to the research questions. However, although this linearity is inevitably part of the design as a product, this is not the way the design will be established.

In other words: what has been presented is a logical sequence, not a time sequence. For example, in the beginning of designing the research project the researcher may have planned to conduct interviews.

In the past, the researcher has been trained to do this and it seemed interesting to try this technique out for him. The design approach we support is an iterative process.

This process is to be continued until the final calculation no longer leads to recognisable changes in the calculation results. In that case the calculations converge. In terms of the design, iteration means that the designer must constantly switch from the one part of the design to the other. Each time, he or she reconsiders the consequences that the provisional decision concerning the one part will have on each of the other parts of the design to be.

That is, both the parts that are still to follow, and the parts that have already been designed must be adapted if necessary. Such an iterative design approach has a number of consequences for the design of a research project. For example, the decision to opt for interviews as a method of data gathering may be a suitable starting point for the design process. If the researcher is attracted to this method of data collection, it will motivate him or her to undertake the heavy workload that a research project inevitably entails.

Or you may even decide to return to an earlier stage and to give consideration to other types of management problems that organisations are faced with nowadays the project context. Then, it is usually not so hard to develop both a conceptual and a technical research design, in which interviews have a meaningful place in the whole.

In short, in this conception of designing a research there are continual movements back and forwards between the various stages of the design to be. Not only will you need this oscillating motion if you wish to fit in your own preferences and interests; it will also be needed because designing is a very 26 Designing a Research Project complex activity. No one can realise this all at the very start of the process.

A third reason for opting for an iterative design approach is the fact that the design needs imagination and creativity. Usually, when reflecting on a certain aspect of the design, the designer is inspired by many new ideas concerning earlier and perhaps also later stages. For example, in the course of drafting a technical design, it may appear important to learn how the respondents appraise a certain phenomenon, whereas the research objective and the set of research questions thus far only allowed for their perception.

In the former case the researcher is looking at values, in the latter case at facts. To include this new perspective, he or she will have to adapt the set of research questions that were formulated earlier. The new set of research questions will include a question or a number of questions regarding the respondents' appraisal or evaluation of certain issues. This iterative approach also supports the efficiency of the design.

As the reader has learned by now, the technical design serves to answer the set of research questions. These answers in turn serve to support the achievement of the research objective.

In other words, there is an instrumental chain at work that is as strong as the weakest link. At each stage of the design various pragmatic decisions need to be taken. The initially adequate set of research questions may call for data that first appears difficult to gather.

It may take too long before the researcher will have them at her or his disposal, it may not be possible to get hold of the right data, or maybe there are those who do not wish to be interviewed. Sometimes, the research designer can avoid such problems by making small adjustments to the set of research questions. But once he or she has done that, it may be necessary to return to the research objective.

If necessary, the designer can change the objective in such a way that the 'new' set of research questions can be logically derived. We have seen that constructing a research design by nature involves trial and error, deciding and reflecting, drafting and revising.

It can therefore be concluded that designing iteratively is only possible on paper. Limiting himself to thinking things over makes it hard for the researcher to juxtapose matters and methodically adjust them. In doing so, he will soon find himself in an almost inextricable knot of thoughts. In short, designing iteratively means that while writing, you are continuously aware that whatever you are writing at this stage, will need revision at a later time.

Drafting and visualising, e. This, too, can be an important, but very difficult learning moment for the beginner researcher. Such an attitude may even lead to the decision to include the process of designing research in a final research report. The reader may be surprised to learn that some of the crucial decisions made during a research project have resulted from an iterative design approach.

Particularly in cases where the researcher had to change his or her original design for practical reasons, without this information the reader may disagree with the designer.

This may be the case, for example, when the reader disagrees with the decisions the designer took with regard to the demarcation of the research subject.

A step-by-step approach This book provides the reader with instructions on how to design a research project with the help of the generic step-by-step approach below. Each step of the generic plan consists of a set of smaller in-between steps. Please notice that the sequential elaboration presented in this book is not an adequate reflection of the design process. We can only show this sequentially, but in practice designing is an iterative-parallel process.

Research design 1. Explore the project context of the research project at hand and decide on a single and a feasible research objective.

Construct a research framework that gives a general indication of the steps that you plan to take to achieve the research objective, 3. Examine, partly on the basis of the research framework, which information will be useful or necessary in order to achieve the research objective. Then formulate this information into a set of research questions and - if appropriate - into a conceptual model. Determine the core concepts of the project and tailor the definitions and operationalisations of the concepts to the research objective and set of research questions.

Determine what research strategy you are going to follow when gathering and processing the material into answers to the questions. For each research question, examine what type of research material you need in order to arrive at sound answers. Draw up a research plan that indicates the activities you are going to carry out, when this will take place, and which products will result during the separate phases of research.

Part I Conceptual design We are at the beginning of a research project. In most cases this means that the researcher has roughly determined the subject of the project.

In some cases, this subject will be purely theoretical; it may have been decided to unravel a theoretical problem by studying the existing literature in the field and by reflecting on this topic.

These matters need to be placed into the conceptual design. Part I deals with the development of such a conceptual design.

The conceptual design serves various purposes within a research project. However, you need to bear in mind when developing a conceptual design that the design flows out of these purposes. By far, the most important purpose of the conceptual design is steering. Not only does this mean steering in the creation of the technical design, but also in the actual implementation of the research project later on.

The design the drawings and the detailed descriptions the specifications of a house are presented in such a way that others can build the house exactly in the way the architect has meant for it to be built.

The same is true of the conceptual design of a research project. If someone else were to carry out the project according to what was originally anticipated, then the collected data would have to be in accordance with what was originally anticipated. A great number of methods, procedures and heuristics will be offered to support this steering purpose. Two additional purposes of a conceptual design are the motivational and the evaluative purpose.

When designing the research project the researcher should select a research objective and a set of research questions that are of interest to her or him. Finally, the evaluative purpose is generally realised by the conceptual design serving as a product specification. This design indicates the type of information the research is going to produce and, in turn, how this information can contribute to solving a theoretical or practical problem.

This research objective and the set of research questions are suitable as a standard for assessment after the research project has been finalised: Has the project really produced what the researcher, the supervisor or the client had intended at the start and does it comply with the view that they presented to third parties, i.

At this stage it is important to realise that a subject is always part of a wider context. If he or she decides to opt for a practice-oriented approach, the context will often be placed within an organisation in which the research is to take place. It is important not to wait too long before becoming acquainted with the wider context.

In addition, a search at the library will reveal what has been published on the subject, and the researcher may consider approaching an expert who is familiar with the subject. In the case of practice-oriented research, it would be a good idea to visit the organisation where the researcher expects to carry out the research project as early as possible.

It is also possible that a contact person in the commissioning organisation is someone who is not familiar with scientific research. In such a situation it is difficult not to be overwhelmed by the multitude of impressions and to still be able to get an idea of the role of the researcher within this complex arrangement.

That is why you have asked the consultancy firm Mulder if it is possible to carry out your final project within the firm. Apparently, there is a lot of resistance towards the changes that have been planned. Everyone can still remember how the previous IT project failed. The system was continually down, the work suddenly changed completely and staff had been promised all kinds of training programmes that were never offered. Hence, it was only to be expected that a storm of protest broke out after a new reorganisation plan was announced.

A senior consultant subsequently visited the company and discussed the proposed plans with several staff members. Suddenly you find yourself in the senior consultant's office and the question is: How does your master's thesis fit in with this? How may your project contribute towards these plans? The student finds herself involved in a complex situation that has historical roots and in which all sorts of interests and issues are involved. It is no simple matter for an uninitiated researcher or student to define their contribution to the project.

It is clear that the researcher is not just another junior employee of the consultancy firm. The thesis project consists of a research project that will be set up and carried out independently. Of course, it seems natural that in some way or other the student will take on part of the consultancy project. Therefore, a choice must be made. Moreover, the consultancy project will require more time than the student has at her disposal.

That is why she must formulate a project that can be carried out within the time available. In addition, the project must meet the requirements 2 Research objective 33 set by her institute. One of these requirements, for example, may be that a connection should be made with the existing body of scientific knowledge in this particular field.

We will first formulate the general guidelines that should be taken into account when defining a project context and a research objective Section 2. Afterwards, these guidelines are further refined and made concrete for various kinds of research projects, i. The first case concerns a theoretical problem, the second a practical problem. Consequently, we will respectively refer to a theory-oriented or a practiceoriented research project.

In a theory-oriented research project, the project context is made up of the process and product of knowledge formation within the field in which the research project is to be carried out. In practice-oriented research, the project context is a practical problem in a public or private organisation. Therefore a research project, which was initially designed as a practice-oriented project, 34 Part I Conceptual design could directly or indirectly contribute to the development of a theoretical body of knowledge in this field.

This has been referred to as the theoretical relevance of a research project. Conversely, a theory-oriented research which originally did not intend to be of any practical use, often may, one way or the other appear to provide information that can be very useful in practice. A well-designed conceptual model should serve two designing purposes : p. Designing a Research Project by Piet Verschuren et al. Citation Piet Verschuren , Hans Doorewaard Designing a Research Project Second.

The Hague, Netherlands. Eleven International Publishing. BibTex entry for this book:. Table of contents. The project context and the research objective. Function and form requirements for research questions. The conceptual design determines what, why and how much we are going to study: The research objective.

It consists of three elements: Research strategy. Explore the project context of the research project at hand and decide on a single and a feasible research objective. Construct a research framework that gives a general indication of the steps that you plan to take to achieve the research objective. Examine which information will be useful or necessary in order to achieve the research objective partly on the basis of the research framework.

Then formulate this information into a set of research questions and - if appropriate - into a conceptual model. Determine the core concepts of the project and tailor the definitions and operationalisations of the concepts to the research objective and set of research questions. Determine what research strategy you are going to follow when gathering and processing the material into answers to the questions. For each research question, examine what type of research material you need in order to arrive at sound answers.

Examine which information will be useful or necessary in order to achieve the research objective. Tailor the definitions and operationalisations of the concepts to the research objective and set of research questions. Don't bite off more than you can chew Read more It supports the researcher to formulate the assumed relationships between the core concepts correctly and to link the research project to an existing theory.

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